Mitochondria Lab Report

The design relied on two Schmitt triggers to generate the two different tones while using the transistors to act as a switch. This causes it to trigger continuously between two unstable states, allowing automatic switching between two frequencies producing two different tones. The RC values between the two Schmitt triggers will differ. Capacitors charge and discharge faster when it’s resistance is smaller.

%% Init % clear all; close all; Fs = 4e3; Time = 40; NumSamp = Time * Fs; load Hd; x1 = 3.5*ecg(2700). ' ; % gen synth ECG signal y1 = sgolayfilt(kron(ones(1,ceil(NumSamp/2700)+1),x1),0,21); % repeat for NumSamp length and smooth n = 1:Time*Fs '; del = round(2700*rand(1)); % pick a random offset mhb = y1(n + del) '; %construct the ecg signal from some offset t = 1/

1. Identify the range of senses involved in communication • Sight (visual communication), Touch (tactile communication), Taste, Hearing (auditory communication), Smell (olfactory communication) 2. Identify the limited range of wavelengths and named parts of the electromagnetic spectrum detected by humans and compare this range with those of THREE other named vertebrates and TWO named invertebrates. Figure 1: the electromagnetic spectrum source: www.ces.fau.edu Vertebrates Human Japanese Dace Fish Rattlesnake Zebra Finch Part of electromagnetic spectrum detected ROYGBV (visible light) detected by light sensitive cells in the eye called rods and cones.

+ ATP Although plants and animals have different methods of obtaining glucose, the cell respiration process occurs in both types of organisms. Many external factors in the environment may affect the organism's’ rate of respiration such as the temperature of the surrounding,

ABSTRACT To catalyze a reaction, an enzyme will grab on (bind) to one or more reactant molecules. In this experiment we examined how increasing the volume of the extract added to the reaction would affect the rate of the reaction. The enzyme used was horseradish peroxidase which helps catalyze hydrogen peroxide. Using different pH levels, the absorbance rate of the reaction was measured to see at which condition the enzyme worked best. The rates of absorption were calculated using a spectrophotometer in 20 second intervals up to 120 seconds.

The purpose of this lab is to extract and quantify some major cellular components, which are pigments contained in chloroplasts, DNA, RNA, and proteins. Euglena gracilis is a single-celled eukaryote that has the contains all of these components and so they were the model organism in this experiment. The purpose of this experiment was achieved by utilizing different reactions that are able to extract specific cellular components. The concentrations of these components were measured using absorbance and these values were used to determine the amount of components present in an individual Euglena cell. Additionally, the morphology of the cells was noted.

The chemical energy in covalent bonds (C-C and C-H) of glucose are released and converted. The majority of the metabolic pathways are parallel to all organisms. Eukaryotes have many classified metabolic pathways with reactions ensuing inside particular organelles and synchronized by crucial enzymes, these enzymatic activities are either activated or inhibited. The energy currency of cells is known as ATP.

Abstract The purpose of this experiment is to test for mitochondrial activity by isolating different organelles using the differential centrifugation process. Studying mitochondria is extremely important because they control the death and life of the cell by regulating the apoptotic signals (Frezza et al 2007). Also they are responsible for the metabolic reactions (aerobic respiration) and the production of ATP (Frezza et al 2007). Three hypotheses were formed based on my knowledge.

Catechol oxidase is found in cell cytoplasm, their function in plants are to "help protect damaged plants bacterial and fungal disease." The objective of this experiment is to test the presences of catechol oxidase in various fruits and vegetables. Our group hypothesis states that, If catechol oxidase is present in the selected extracts, the null hypothesis is that catechol oxidase is not present in the selected extracts. Next, the prediction would be, if catechol oxidase doesn't differ with other enzyme sources, then the rates will

• Write down the highlighted numbers. Do you observe a pattern? • Does the pattern grow? What is the reason for this? • Write down the last number (say 53).

If the aerobic cellular respiration path is taken, the cycle can be broken down into three important yet different parts. First of all, as the cell receives the glucose molecules, glycolysis catabolizes (breaks down) these glucose molecules into 2 pyruvate molecules, which retain most of the energy of the glucose, otherwise known as pyruvic acid, while releasing two water molecules as a byproduct and a net of two ATP. These pyruvates are then transferred into the mitochondrial matrix, converted into acetyl-Co and then introduced into the matrix of the mitochondria to the citric acid cycle known as the Krebs cycle, in which carbon molecules are released as carbon dioxide. During the first two parts of cellular respiration, also known as substrate-level phosphorylation, it is important to understand that both glycolysis and the Krebs cycle produce energized electron carriers FADH2 and NADH by the reduction of coenzymes NAD+ and FAD, which are removed from the acetyl group of the acetyl Co-A that enter the Krebs cycle. These energized electron carriers are then transferred to the electron transport chain on the inner membrane and undergo oxidative phosphorylation, otherwise known as chemiosmosis.

What we knew in last 100 years about chromosomes has completely changed now with this new discovery. We had thought the nucleus is made up of tightly wrapped proteins called histones which form chromosomes. “New research shows that not only the the chromosomes contain 25,000 or more genes it contains also a mysterious structure scientists have found a sheet-like structure that occupies the 47% of the chromosome” (BEC Crew). For the last century, we thought the cell nucleus was made of complex DNA and histone proteins. The reason we did not know much about the cell nucleus is because the chromosomes were only visible during cell division that is during meiosis and mitosis, where the chromosomes are tightly packed to form supercoiled like structures which were visible under a microscope.

Cells in the human body can undergo two types of division: meiosis, or mitosis. Mitosis is for somatic cells while meiosis is for gametes/non-somatic cells. The purpose of this lab is to observe and identify the stages of mitosis and meiosis, and view chromosomes under a compound light microscope. Mitosis would be observed in a preserved onion root-tip slide to view and identify the different stages of the process: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. The stages examined in this lab for mitosis were interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

The 3 concentrations of enzymes were 0.5 ml, 1.0 ml, and 2.0 ml of turnip extract, while the substrate consisted of 0.1ml, 0.2 ml, and 0.4 ml of hydrogen peroxide. In a separate tube, the control was made up of turnip extract and guaiacol, known as the color reagent. This was recorded the absorbance every 20 seconds for 3 minutes.

As discuss above, pyruvate can be directly converted into oxaloacetate or it can convert in malate first by giving up carbon dioxide. Then, malate can convert into oxaloacetate by reduces NAD+ into NADH and H+. In the pyruvate pathway, oxaloacetate cannot be converted into phosphoenolpyruvate in the mitochondria because there is no NADH reducing equivalents which is NAD+ .That is why there is an extra step that should be taken where the production of NADH reducing equivalents occur. Therefore, in mitochondria, oxaloacetate will be converted into malate by malate dehydrogenase which oxidizes NADH and H+ into NAD+ .